Animals with analogical thinking

Animals with analogical thinking

 

 

Summary

 

Analogical thinking in animals refers to the ability to recognize and reason about relationships between different concepts or objects, a cognitive skill once thought to be exclusive to humans. This capacity encompasses various forms of relational reasoning and problem-solving, highlighting significant cognitive complexity across multiple species. Studies have demonstrated that animals, including primates, birds, dolphins, and elephants, exhibit forms of analogical reasoning, thereby challenging the traditional notion of a clear divide between human and animal intelligence.[1][2][3]




One notable instance of analogical reasoning in animals is relational matching, where subjects identify relationships between pairs of items to complete analogies. For example, Sarah the chimpanzee successfully matched geometric shapes and functional objects based on relational equivalence, showcasing advanced cognitive processing capabilities.[4][5]




Furthermore, corvids, such as crows, have shown remarkable proficiency in tasks involving relational matching, providing strong evidence of complex cognitive functions outside primate species. This cross-species research underscores the evolutionary significance of analogical thinking and its presence throughout the animal kingdom.[6][7]




The implications of analogical reasoning extend beyond cognitive science, affecting animal welfare and ethical considerations. Recognizing that many species possess this cognitive ability necessitates a reevaluation of how we assess animal welfare, advocating for policies that consider the emotional and psychological needs of animals. Understanding analogical thinking enhances our knowledge of animal behavior and adaptability, emphasizing the need for more humane treatment practices based on cognitive capacities rather than mere behavioral observations.[3][8]




Despite its importance, the study of analogical reasoning in animals faces challenges, including methodological biases and the complexity of interpreting animal behavior. Researchers continue to refine experimental designs to ensure robust assessments of analogical thinking across species, aiming to illuminate the cognitive mechanisms that underpin this essential aspect of intelligence and problem-solving in the animal kingdom.[9][10]

Types of Analogical Thinking in Animals

 

Analogical thinking in animals encompasses various forms of relational reasoning and problem-solving abilities that demonstrate cognitive complexity. Research indicates that multiple species exhibit capabilities that resemble those found in humans, revealing the potential for sophisticated mental processes in nonhuman animals.

Relational Matching

 

One of the most compelling forms of analogical reasoning observed in animals is relational matching, where subjects are required to identify relationships between pairs of items. For example, in experimental settings, animals have been tested on tasks where they must complete analogies by matching relationships between different objects. A notable instance involved an animal named Sarah, who demonstrated the ability to respond correctly to both simple and complex analogies. In one scenario, Sarah matched geometrical shapes and functional objects, correctly identifying relationships based on equivalence rather than merely perceptual similarities[1][2]. This capability illustrates a significant level of cognitive processing, as the animal was able to navigate complex relational structures.

 

Cross-Species Evidence

 

 

Several nonhuman species, including crows and other birds, have shown strong evidence of engaging in higher-order relational matching tasks. These tasks serve as benchmarks for assessing analogical reasoning capabilities. For instance, crows have been observed to spontaneously solve these tasks, providing some of the strongest evidence for analogical thinking outside of primates[4][5]. This cross-species evidence highlights that analogical reasoning is not solely a human trait but is present in various forms across the animal kingdom.

 

Problem-Solving and Tool Use

 

Analogical reasoning is often linked to advanced problem-solving skills, including tool use. Some animal species demonstrate creativity and the ability to engage in problem-solving activities that require them to manipulate objects in their environment. This suggests a cognitive flexibility that aligns with analogical thinking processes[2]. The ability to relate different tools or actions to achieve a goal underscores the advanced cognitive capacities that some animals possess.

 

 

Cognitive Strategies

 

 

The strategies employed by animals in analogical reasoning tasks often differ from those of humans. For example, while humans tend to consider specific content and feature transformations in analogies, some animals, like Sarah, focus on the number of features involved, indicating a different cognitive approach[2]. This distinction emphasizes the diversity of cognitive strategies employed by different species, suggesting that analogical thinking can manifest in varied forms depending on the cognitive architecture of the animal.

 

Species Exhibiting Analogical Thinking

 

 

Primates

 

 

Apes and Monkeys

Research has indicated that apes and monkeys possess the ability to match relations with relations, suggesting a foundational level of analogical reasoning in these species. For example, chimpanzees have demonstrated proficiency in relational matching tasks, which require them to understand and apply relationships similar to those found in human analogical reasoning[6][7]. The evolutionary precursors to this capability may extend even to monkeys, hinting at a more gradual emergence of analogical reasoning within the primate lineage[3][1].

 

Birds

 

 

Corvids

 

Corvids, particularly species like crows and ravens, have shown remarkable cognitive abilities that include analogical reasoning. Experimental studies have demonstrated that these birds can engage in relational matching-to-sample (RMTS) tasks, indicating their ability to perceive and manipulate relationships in a manner similar to primates[8][1]. This ability exemplifies the sophisticated problem-solving skills present in corvids, which are known for their intelligence and complex social behaviors.

 

 

Introduction to Analogical Thinking in Animals

 

 

 

Analogical reasoning, which involves understanding relationships between concepts and making inferences based on those relationships, is a significant aspect of advanced cognition and behavioral adaptation. While traditionally considered a uniquely human trait, recent studies suggest that various nonhuman species exhibit forms of analogical thinking as well[3][9]. This cognitive ability is evident across a range of species, challenging the notion of a strict divide between human and animal intelligence[8].

 

Other Species

 

Dolphins and Elephants

 

Marine mammals, such as dolphins, and land mammals like elephants, are also considered to possess the cognitive foundations for analogical reasoning. Evidence suggests that both species can engage in tasks requiring an understanding of relationships and can perform transformations that indicate a level of abstract thinking akin to analogical reasoning observed in humans and primates[10][8].

 

 

Research Methodologies

 

 

Overview of Methodological Approaches

 

Research methodologies for studying analogical reasoning in animals encompass a variety of experimental designs and analytical techniques aimed at understanding cognitive processes across different species. These methodologies are crucial for improving experimental design, ensuring reproducibility, and addressing biases in animal research[11][12][13].

 

Key Steps in Designing Animal Experiments

 

The design of experiments involving animal subjects requires careful consideration of several key steps. Researchers must outline clear hypotheses, select appropriate species, and develop tasks that accurately assess analogical reasoning capabilities. A brief overview of these steps includes defining the variables, creating controlled environments, and employing suitable behavioral tasks[14][9][15].

 

Experimental Designs for Assessing Analogical Reasoning

 

To evaluate analogical reasoning, researchers often utilize tasks that require animals to solve problems through analogy. For instance, studies have shown that crows can engage in higher-order relational matching tasks, providing strong evidence of analogical reasoning in nonprimate species[7][5]. These tasks typically involve presenting animals with pairs of objects and requiring them to identify relationships or solve problems based on those relationships. For example, in geometrical analogy tasks, animals must match items based on relational patterns rather than mere perceptual similarities[16][17].

 

Neuroscientific Investigations

 

Recent studies have also begun to explore the neurobiological underpinnings of analogical reasoning in animals. Techniques such as task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been employed to investigate the brain networks involved in analogical reasoning, particularly focusing on the roles of the prefrontal cortex and anterior temporal cortex[18][19][20][21]. This neurocognitive approach helps delineate the cognitive mechanisms that support analogical reasoning across species, shedding light on the evolutionary aspects of this cognitive ability[22][6].

 

Addressing Challenges in Animal Research

 

Research in analogical reasoning faces various challenges, including the risk of biases and the complexity of interpreting animal behavior. Methodological approaches must address these challenges through robust experimental designs that enhance the validity and reproducibility of results[23][15]. This includes ensuring that studies are adequately powered and that a sufficient number of experimenters are involved to minimize variability in outcomes[13].

Case Studies

 

 

Rhesus Macaques and Capuchin Monkeys

 

Studies investigating analogical reasoning in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) have utilized a conceptual match-to-sample paradigm. These studies aimed to determine the extent to which these New World monkeys can understand and utilize analogies, indicating a level of cognitive complexity previously underestimated in non-human animals[24][25].

 

 

Sarah the Chimpanzee

 

 

One of the most significant cases in the study of analogical reasoning in animals involved a chimpanzee named Sarah. In a series of experiments, Sarah was tested on her ability to complete and construct analogies. During one test, she was presented with a relation, such as a/b, and given four alternatives to form an equivalent relation. In 48 trials, she achieved a correctness rate of approximately 75% (P < .001)[5][26]. Furthermore, when required to construct analogies independently from a unique set of four or five objects, her success rate was about 60% (P < .001), surpassing chance levels[10][26].

 

New Caledonian Crows

 

New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) have also demonstrated remarkable analogical reasoning abilities. These birds can spontaneously use multiple tools in the correct sequence to achieve a goal, a skill previously believed to be exclusive to apes and humans[27][28]. Furthermore, crows have shown the capability to pass laboratory tests designed to evaluate their analogical reasoning, successfully matching similar or different icons with minimal training[29]. This ability highlights their advanced cognitive functions in comparison to other non-human species.

 

Experimental Design and Methodology

 

The methodologies employed in studying analogical reasoning across various species have focused on creating rigorous experimental controls. For example, a new experimental design has been introduced to enhance the reproducibility and validity of results in studies involving animal cognition[23][14]. This methodological approach allows for direct comparisons of analogical reasoning abilities across species, shedding light on the cognitive capabilities of different animals and providing insights into their learning processes[9].

 

 

Implications of Analogical Thinking in Animal Welfare

 

Recent developments in animal ethics have highlighted the need for a political turn that emphasizes justice for animals through institutional reforms. Theories emerging in this context suggest that obligations towards animals are not solely the responsibility of individual humans but also involve state-level responsibilities that arise from historical relationships between humans and animals[6][2]. This shift reflects a growing recognition of the complexities of animal welfare and the role that cognition, such as analogical reasoning, plays in these discussions. Analogical thinking, which is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, may also have implications for how animals process information and respond to their environments. Studies investigating analogical reasoning in animals suggest that such cognitive abilities could enhance their adaptability and problem-solving skills[30][7]. Understanding these cognitive processes is crucial, as it provides insight into the capacities of animals to navigate challenges and threats in their habitats. As scientists focus on how well an animal has evolved to thrive in its environment rather than simply labeling species as "smart," the role of cognitive abilities in welfare assessments becomes increasingly relevant[7][31]. Moreover, recognizing that animals might possess forms of analogical reasoning invites a re-evaluation of welfare policies. If animals can draw analogies and learn from experiences, it implies that their emotional and psychological needs must be addressed in more sophisticated ways. This understanding aligns with the idea that effective animal welfare practices should incorporate cognitive assessments alongside traditional measures[32][1]. As researchers continue to explore the depths of animal cognition, the integration of findings regarding analogical thinking into welfare frameworks could lead to more humane and just treatment of animals[6][2].

 

 

Evolutionary Advantages of Analogical Thinking

 

Analogical reasoning serves as a crucial cognitive tool that enables organisms to adapt and thrive in their environments. This type of reasoning is characterized by problem-solving based on relational or functional similarities, allowing individuals to apply knowledge from familiar domains to novel situations[33]. While it is often associated with human intelligence, analogical thinking also plays a significant role in the cognitive capabilities of various animal species.

 

 

Adaptive Problem-Solving

 

 

The ability to form analogies is vital for advanced cognition and behavioral adaptation[3]. Evolutionary theorists suggest that animal intelligence exemplifies how specific adaptations address particular environmental challenges. Each individual solution to a problem contributes to an overall cognitive capacity, which can be described as the knitting together of various problem-solving strategies[30][34]. In this sense, analogical reasoning allows animals to leverage previous experiences to navigate new circumstances, enhancing their survival and reproductive success.

 

Cognitive Flexibility

 

Cognition is understood as the means by which animals engage in flexible, goal-oriented behavior through information processing[31]. The capacity for analogical thinking enriches this cognitive flexibility, enabling animals to draw parallels between different situations. This cognitive mechanism not only aids in problem-solving but also enhances the ability to learn from past experiences and apply that knowledge to future challenges[15][17]. Such flexibility is particularly advantageous in dynamic environments where conditions may change rapidly.

 

 

Communication and Social Interaction

 

 

Moreover, analogical reasoning is connected to the capacity for communication among species. The ability to convey thoughts and intentions is crucial for social interactions and cooperative behaviors. As Dorit Bar-On discusses in her theory of expressive communication, even in the absence of language, the ability to express mental states can be seen in both children and animals[4]. This suggests that analogical thinking may facilitate social bonding and collective problem-solving, further contributing to the evolutionary advantages of this cognitive skill.

 

 

References

 

 

Reference [1]

Title: Analogical Reasoning in Animals - AnimalWise

Url: https://animalwise.org/2011/10/07/analogical-reasoning-in-animals/

Highlights: Analogical reasoning by corvids using a new experimental paradigm Date Authors Journal Title Journal ISSN Volume Title Publisher Abstract. If the relationship between the paired objects on the left was the same as the relationship between those on the right, her task was to place the same token in the space between the two pairs. Thus in one series of geometrical analogies, a simple problem would display a blue circle and a red circle on the left and a blue triangle and a red triangle on the right; the correct answer, of course, was same. But Sarah was equally correct on more complex problems, even when the relationships in question were functional rather than simply perceptual. For example, she correctly answered same when the two objects on the left were a tin can and a can opener and the two on the right a padlock and a key.Videos of animals engaged in surprising behaviors, such as an orangutan washing clothes and sawing wood or a dog using buttons to “speak” (see Other Internet Resources), might suggest that these animals are smart or intelligent. The idea that some animals are smarter than others might also lead you to expect that research in animal cognition focuses on animals such as chimpanzees, elephants, dolphins, dogs, or ravens—all species that often make the news with reports of their amazing abilities. But animal cognition research is just as interested in research on worms, honeybees, snakes, stickleback fish, chickadees, and spiders, though there remains quite a bit of cognition research on the behaviorist standbys of pigeons and rats.. However, it is possible that analogy-making did not emerge abruptly in our species or in apes, and that its precursors are present also in monkeys.In today's post, I'd like to explore some surprising recent findings about the abilities of animals in the area of analogical reasoning.. As we shall see in a later section, chimpanzees are expert at transformations.Recent years have witnessed a political turn in animal ethics, with the appearance of several theories that discuss how political institutions and processes can be transformed to guarantee justice for animals (Cochrane, Garner, & O’Sullivan 2018). This work is somewhat less capacity-oriented than traditional animal ethics, since it does not focus on the moral obligations of individual humans towards animals, and tends to highlight instead the sorts of obligations that are generated at the state level by the relationships that humans have historically held with animals (Donaldson & Kymlicka 2011).

 

 

Reference [2]

Title: What is analogical reasoning and why is it considered a uniquely ...

Url: https://www.quora.com/What-is-analogical-reasoning-and-why-is-it-considered-a-uniquely-human-ability

Highlights: There is tool use in some species, and good evidence of problem-solving capabilities. Some animals display creativity, and many “play” for no ...There is tool use in some species, and good evidence of problem-solving capabilities. Some animals display creativity, and many “play” for .... If the relationship between the paired objects on the left was the same as the relationship between those on the right, her task was to place the same token in the space between the two pairs. Thus in one series of geometrical analogies, a simple problem would display a blue circle and a red circle on the left and a blue triangle and a red triangle on the right; the correct answer, of course, was same. But Sarah was equally correct on more complex problems, even when the relationships in question were functional rather than simply perceptual. For example, she correctly answered same when the two objects on the left were a tin can and a can opener and the two on the right a padlock and a key.In constructing analogies from scratch, Sarah used a strategy simpler than that used by human adults. She regarded the difference between, for example, a and b, and c and d, as equivalent if the two transformations both involved the same number of features. Humans, by contrast, attend not only to the number of features, but to their specific content. For example, humans regard a “color + shape” transformation as different from a “size + fill” transformation, whereas Sarah treated the two transformations as equivalent because they both entailed the same number of features (Oden et al, 2001).Recent years have witnessed a political turn in animal ethics, with the appearance of several theories that discuss how political institutions and processes can be transformed to guarantee justice for animals (Cochrane, Garner, & O’Sullivan 2018). This work is somewhat less capacity-oriented than traditional animal ethics, since it does not focus on the moral obligations of individual humans towards animals, and tends to highlight instead the sorts of obligations that are generated at the state level by the relationships that humans have historically held with animals (Donaldson & Kymlicka 2011).

 

 

 

 

Reference [3]

Title: Relational and Analogical Reasoning in Comparative Cognition

Url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349864141_Relational_and_Analogical_Reasoning_in_Comparative_Cognition

Highlights: Several nonhuman animal species have been claimed to successfully pass tests indicative of relational matching and to therefore engage in ...For there to be communication, there must be thought, and as we saw in the previous section, some philosophers deny that thought is possible without language. Dorit Bar-On defends a theory of intentional communication she calls expressive communication, according to which avowals are self-reports or expressions of one’s current mental states that have both an action component and a semantic component (Bar-On 2004). She argues that an appreciation of expressive communication can help us see how children and animals who lack language may yet still have thoughts (Bar-On 2019).

 

 

 

 

Reference [4]

Title: Crows Spontaneously Exhibit Analogical Reasoning - ScienceDirect

Url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982214015577

Highlights: For there to be communication, there must be thought, and as we saw in the previous section, some philosophers deny that thought is possible without language. Dorit Bar-On defends a theory of intentional communication she calls expressive communication, according to which avowals are self-reports or expressions of one’s current mental states that have both an action component and a semantic component (Bar-On 2004). She argues that an appreciation of expressive communication can help us see how children and animals who lack language may yet still have thoughts (Bar-On 2019).She was then given one relation, e.g. a/b, and four alternatives from which to form a relation equivalent to the one given. In this test, it was necessary not merely to recognize the correct relation, but to construct it by selecting the correct alternatives and placing them in the correct relation. Given 48 trials of this kind, Sarah once again was correct about 75% of the time (P .001). She was next given either four or five alternatives, a different set for each trial, and required to construct an analogy on her own. Her analogies were correct about 60% of the time (P .001). Chance is about 30% correct for the four-element case, still less for the five (15).Crows too spontaneously solve higher-order relational matching tasks. This is the strongest evidence yet of analogical reasoning in a nonprimate species.

 

 

 

Reference [5]

Title: Analogical reasoning in baboons (Papio papio): Flexible reencoding ...

Url: https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-012-0101-7

Highlights: Recent studies have demonstrated that apes and monkeys can match relations with relations, suggesting that these species have the basic ...Recent years have witnessed a political turn in animal ethics, with the appearance of several theories that discuss how political institutions and processes can be transformed to guarantee justice for animals (Cochrane, Garner, & O’Sullivan 2018). This work is somewhat less capacity-oriented than traditional animal ethics, since it does not focus on the moral obligations of individual humans towards animals, and tends to highlight instead the sorts of obligations that are generated at the state level by the relationships that humans have historically held with animals (Donaldson & Kymlicka 2011).Analogical reasoning is a cornerstone of human cognition, but the extent and limits of analogical reasoning in animals remains unclear.

 

 

 

 

Reference [6]

Title: Crows spontaneously exhibit analogical reasoning - PubMed

Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25532894/

Highlights: • Hare, B, Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2001). Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know and do not know? Animal Behavior, 61, 139-151. • Hauser, M., & Spaulding, B. (2006). Wild rhesus monkeys generate causal inferences about possible and impossible conditions. Proceedings National Academy Sciences, 103, 7181-7185. • He, Z, Bolz, M., & Baillargeon, R. Understanding of false belief in 2.5-year-olds in a violation-of-expectation test. Paper presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, Ma, March 2007. • Herrmann, E., Call, J., Hernandez-Lloredo, M.V., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: The cultural intelligence hypothesis. Science, 317, 1360-1366. • Horner V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164-181.Analogical reasoning by corvids using a new experimental paradigm Date Authors Journal Title Journal ISSN Volume Title Publisher AbstractSuch robust and uninstructed relational matching behavior represents the most convincing evidence yet of analogical reasoning in a nonprimate ...Furthermore, animal cognition research tends to eschew questions of which animals are smarter than others, focusing instead on more specific questions like the ones above. Scientists often say that they are more interested in how well an animal evolved to thrive in their environment, rather than in how smart they are. This way of thinking about intelligence makes comparing intelligence between species moot (though it is a topic that is largely unexplored by philosophers of animal minds). Contemporary research in animal cognition has as its roots Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, and Darwin’s thesis of the continuity of the mental across species: the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. (Darwin 1874: 126, with a minor variation 1871: 105)

 

 

Reference [7]

Title: Crows Spontaneously Exhibit Analogical Reasoning - Cell Press

Url: https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdfExtended/S0960-9822(14)01557-7

Highlights: . However, it is possible that analogy-making did not emerge abruptly in our species or in apes, and that its precursors are present also in monkeys.Analogical reasoning is vital to advanced cognition and behavioral adaptation. Many theorists deem analogical.Analogical reasoning is vital to advanced cognition and behavioral adaptation. Many theorists deem analogical thinking to be uniquely human ...

 

 

 

Reference [8]

Title: Why Humans are Unique: Three Theories. Perspectives on ... - Essays

Url: https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~premack/Essays/Entries/2009/5/15_Why_Humans_are_Unique__Three_Theories.html

Highlights: Videos of animals engaged in surprising behaviors, such as an orangutan washing clothes and sawing wood or a dog using buttons to “speak” (see Other Internet Resources), might suggest that these animals are smart or intelligent. The idea that some animals are smarter than others might also lead you to expect that research in animal cognition focuses on animals such as chimpanzees, elephants, dolphins, dogs, or ravens—all species that often make the news with reports of their amazing abilities. But animal cognition research is just as interested in research on worms, honeybees, snakes, stickleback fish, chickadees, and spiders, though there remains quite a bit of cognition research on the behaviorist standbys of pigeons and rats.• Hare, B, Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2001). Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know and do not know? Animal Behavior, 61, 139-151. • Hauser, M., & Spaulding, B. (2006). Wild rhesus monkeys generate causal inferences about possible and impossible conditions. Proceedings National Academy Sciences, 103, 7181-7185. • He, Z, Bolz, M., & Baillargeon, R. Understanding of false belief in 2.5-year-olds in a violation-of-expectation test. Paper presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, Ma, March 2007. • Herrmann, E., Call, J., Hernandez-Lloredo, M.V., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: The cultural intelligence hypothesis. Science, 317, 1360-1366. • Horner V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164-181.- Birch, Jonathan, forthcoming, “The Search for Invertebrate Consciousness”, Noûs, first online: 30 August 2020. doi:10.1111/nous.12351 - Boisseau, Romain P., David Vogel, and Audrey Dussutour, 2016, “Habituation in Non-Neural Organisms: Evidence from Slime Moulds”, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1829): art. 20160446. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0446 - Botero, Maria, 2016, “Tactless Scientists: Ignoring Touch in the Study of Joint Attention”, Philosophical Psychology, 29(8): 1200–1214. doi:10.1080/09515089.2016.1225293 - Buckner, Cameron, 2013, “Morgan’s Canon, Meet Hume’s Dictum: Avoiding Anthropofabulation in Cross-Species Comparisons”, Biology & Philosophy, 28(5): 853–871. doi:10.1007/s10539-013-9376-0 - Burge, Tyler, 2010, “Steps Toward Origins of Propositional Thought”, Disputatio, 4(29): 39–67. doi:10.2478/disp-2010-0010

 

 

 

Reference [9]

Title: Relational complexity influences analogical reasoning ability - PMC

Url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10074587/

Highlights: Multiple different brain regions have been implicated in tests of fluid intelligence and analogical reasoning. The multiple-demand system ...We report on a methodological approach allowing for direct comparisons of analogical reasoning ability across species. We show that human ...- Birch, Jonathan, forthcoming, “The Search for Invertebrate Consciousness”, Noûs, first online: 30 August 2020. doi:10.1111/nous.12351 - Boisseau, Romain P., David Vogel, and Audrey Dussutour, 2016, “Habituation in Non-Neural Organisms: Evidence from Slime Moulds”, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1829): art. 20160446. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0446 - Botero, Maria, 2016, “Tactless Scientists: Ignoring Touch in the Study of Joint Attention”, Philosophical Psychology, 29(8): 1200–1214. doi:10.1080/09515089.2016.1225293 - Buckner, Cameron, 2013, “Morgan’s Canon, Meet Hume’s Dictum: Avoiding Anthropofabulation in Cross-Species Comparisons”, Biology & Philosophy, 28(5): 853–871. doi:10.1007/s10539-013-9376-0 - Burge, Tyler, 2010, “Steps Toward Origins of Propositional Thought”, Disputatio, 4(29): 39–67. doi:10.2478/disp-2010-0010

 

 

Reference [10]

Title: What representatives of animal kingdom have abstract thinking and ...

Url: https://www.reddit.com/r/consciousness/comments/1aqh0bs/what_representatives_of_animal_kingdom_have/

Highlights: Probably common among whales and dolphins. Possible among Chimps. Likely among elephants. In general mammals that can sing are more likely to be self-aware.- Washburn, Margaret Floy, 1908, The Animal Mind: A Text-book of Comparative Psychology, New York: The Macmillan Company. - White, Thomas I. (ed.), 2007, In Defense of Dolphins: The New Moral Frontier, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. doi:10.1002/9780470694152 - Wilcox, Marc G., 2020, “Animals and the Agency Account of Moral Status”, Philosophical Studies, 177(7): 1879–1899. doi:10.1007/s11098-019-01289-x - Zahavi, Dan and Søren Overgaard, 2012, “Empathy Without Isomorphism: A Phenomenological Account”, in Empathy: from Bench to Bedside, Jean Decety (ed.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 3–20. - Zuberbühler, Klaus, 2020, “Syntax and Compositionality in Animal Communication”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 375(1789): 20190062. doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0062She was then given one relation, e.g. a/b, and four alternatives from which to form a relation equivalent to the one given. In this test, it was necessary not merely to recognize the correct relation, but to construct it by selecting the correct alternatives and placing them in the correct relation. Given 48 trials of this kind, Sarah once again was correct about 75% of the time (P .001). She was next given either four or five alternatives, a different set for each trial, and required to construct an analogy on her own. Her analogies were correct about 60% of the time (P .001). Chance is about 30% correct for the four-element case, still less for the five (15).. As we shall see in a later section, chimpanzees are expert at transformations.• Hare, B, Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2001). Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know and do not know? Animal Behavior, 61, 139-151. • Hauser, M., & Spaulding, B. (2006). Wild rhesus monkeys generate causal inferences about possible and impossible conditions. Proceedings National Academy Sciences, 103, 7181-7185. • He, Z, Bolz, M., & Baillargeon, R. Understanding of false belief in 2.5-year-olds in a violation-of-expectation test. Paper presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, Ma, March 2007. • Herrmann, E., Call, J., Hernandez-Lloredo, M.V., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: The cultural intelligence hypothesis. Science, 317, 1360-1366. • Horner V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164-181.

 

 

 

Reference [11]

Title: Designing, conducting, and reporting reproducible animal experiments

Url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10304908/

Highlights: We provide a list of key resources available to researchers to improve experimental design, conduct, and reporting.

 

 

Reference [12]

Title: Logical fallacies in animal model research

Url: https://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12993-017-0121-8

Highlights: This paper aims to address risks, biases, and fallacies associated with drawing conclusions when conducting experiments on animals, with focus on animal models ...

 

 

 

Reference [13]

Title: Animal research: Influence of experimenters on results less strong ...

Url: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/05/220510102850.htm

Highlights: Researchers investigate link between the reproducibility of behavioral studies and the number of experimenters.

 

 

Reference [14]

Title: [PDF] Practical Aspects of Experimental Design in Animal Research

Url: https://sites.sju.edu/researchservices/files/2017/09/Exp-Design-Animal-Research.pdf

Highlights: A brief overview is presented of the key steps involved in designing a research animal experiment, with reference to resources that specifically address ...

 

 

 

Reference [15]

Title: The Neural Correlates of Analogy Component Processes - Parsons

Url: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cogs.13116

Highlights: Analogical reasoning is a core facet of higher cognition in humans. Creating analogies as we navigate the environment helps us learn.

 

 

 

Reference [16]

Title: Analogical reasoning: What capuchin monkeys can tell us?

Url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236888735_Analogical_reasoning_What_capuchin_monkeys_can_tell_us

Highlights: . If the relationship between the paired objects on the left was the same as the relationship between those on the right, her task was to place the same token in the space between the two pairs. Thus in one series of geometrical analogies, a simple problem would display a blue circle and a red circle on the left and a blue triangle and a red triangle on the right; the correct answer, of course, was same. But Sarah was equally correct on more complex problems, even when the relationships in question were functional rather than simply perceptual. For example, she correctly answered same when the two objects on the left were a tin can and a can opener and the two on the right a padlock and a key.

 

 

 

Reference [17]

Title: Crows Understand Analogies | Scientific American

Url: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/crows-understand-analogies/

Highlights: Cognition is often understood to be what permits flexible goal-oriented behavior through information processing. Comparative cognition research examines which animal behaviors are cognitive, and what sort of cognitive mechanisms or processes permit that behavior. If the relationship between the paired objects on the left was the same as the relationship between those on the right, her task was to place the same token in the space between the two pairs. Thus in one series of geometrical analogies, a simple problem would display a blue circle and a red circle on the left and a blue triangle and a red triangle on the right; the correct answer, of course, was same. But Sarah was equally correct on more complex problems, even when the relationships in question were functional rather than simply perceptual. For example, she correctly answered same when the two objects on the left were a tin can and a can opener and the two on the right a padlock and a key.

 

 

 

Reference [18]

Title: [PDF] A Neurocomputational Model of Analogical Reasoning and its ...

Url: https://labs.psychology.illinois.edu/~jehummel/pubs/MorrisonEtAl04.pdf

Highlights: In this study, we report two experiments investigating the role of the prefrontal cortex and the anterior temporal cortex in analogical reasoning, and a LISA ...

 

 

 

Reference [19]

Title: The prefrontal cortex: from monkey to man - Oxford Academic

Url: https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/147/3/794/7424860

Highlights: The prefrontal cortex is so important to human beings that, if deprived of it, our behaviour is reduced to action-reactions and automatisms.

 

 

 

Reference [20]

Title: General and specialized brain correlates for analogical reasoning

Url: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6867453/

Highlights: The aim of this study was to identify the cerebral network involved in analogical reasoning and its specialization based on the domains of information and task ...

 

 

Reference [21]

Title: Individual differences in analogical reasoning revealed by ...

Url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S105381191830795X

Highlights: We employed task-based fMRI to study neurocognitive mechanisms associated with individual differences in analogical reasoning (AR).

 

 

 

 

Reference [22]

Title: Neural Correlates of Analogical Reasoning on Syntactic Patterns

Url: https://direct.mit.edu/jocn/article/36/5/854/119246/Neural-Correlates-of-Analogical-Reasoning-on

Highlights: Our study is the first to investigate the process of analogical reasoning on syntactic patterns at the neurobiological level and provide ...These analyses showed that analogical reasoning on syntactic patterns recruited brain regions consistent with those supporting visuospatial and ...

 

 

Reference [23]

Title: Animal-based research: New experimental design for improved ...

Url: https://phys.org/news/2020-10-animal-based-experimental.html

Highlights: A new experimental design can improve the reproducibility and validity of results from studies involving animal experiments.

 

 

 

Reference [24]

Title: [PDF] Experiment versus analogy in the search for animal sentience

Url: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1257&context=animsent

Highlights: Abstract: Deciding between rival accounts of an instance of an animal's behavior can frequently be achieved by experimental tests of ...

 

 

 

 

Reference [25]

Title: [PDF] Analogical Reasoning in a Capuchin Monkey (Cebus apella)

Url: https://www.psychology.uga.edu/sites/default/files/CVs/Kennedy%20%26%20Fragaszy_2008_Journal%20of%20Comparative%20Psychology.pdf

Highlights: Studies investigating analogical reasoning in rhesus macaques. (Macaca mulatta) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) using conceptual matching-to-sample (MTS) ...The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which the capacity to understand and use analogies is present in a New World monkey species. By.

 

 

 

Reference [26]

Title: Monkeys also reason through analogy - Phys.org

Url: https://phys.org/news/2011-09-monkeys-analogy.html

Highlights: Four tests have been made of this issue (Oden et al, 2001). The chimpanzee tested was Sarah, a 39-year-old African born female with extensive laboratory experience. In two of the tests, Sarah was required to complete partially constructed analogies. In another test she was presented with an empty analogy board and required to construct an analogy on her own, from a unique set of four or five objects. The objects used were squares of white cardboard each with a geometric form stenciled on it. The forms varied in color (4), shape (3), size (2), and in whether the forms were filled in with color or were simply a colored outline. All possible cases were used, creating a pool of 48 different items. In the first test, she was given two pairs of relations—a/b and c/d—some of which formed analogies, and some of which did not. For example: small yellow square/large red square : small green circle/large blue circle did form an analogy; whereas small yellow square/large red square :

 

Reference [27]

Title: Crows wield tools with human-like skill | New Scientist

Url: https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12495-crows-wield-tools-with-human-like-skill/

Highlights: New Caledonian crows can use one tool to manipulate another – only apes and humans share this skill and the sophisticated reasoning ...

 

Reference [28]

Title: Crows Can Use 'Up To Three Tools' In Correct Sequence Without ...

Url: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090805144114.htm

Highlights: Crows can spontaneously use up to three tools in the correct sequence to achieve a goal, something never before observed in non-human animals ...

 

 

 

Reference [29]

Title: Crows may be able to make analogies - Science News

Url: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/crows-may-be-able-make-analogies

Highlights: Crows with little training pass a lab test for analogical reasoning that requires matching similar or different icons.

 

 

Reference [30]

Title: [PDF] ANALOGICAL REASONING IN CAPUCHIN MONKEYS (CEBUS ...

Url: https://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/kennedy_erica_h_200608_phd.pdf

Highlights: These studies have investigated analogical reasoning by requiring animals to solve problems through use of analogy. Other studies have involved the ...Evolutionary theorists are fond of noting that there are no “general solutions” because the problems to which evolution provides solutions are always specific. This view accords well with animal intelligence. The animal’s adaptation is a perfect example of a solution to a specific problem. However, the view does not accord well with human intelligence, for domain-general competence is not a solution to a specific problem. How do we resolve the seeming paradox between standard evolutionary theory and the domain-general character of human intelligence? Human faculties seem to consist, not of a solution to one problem, but of the knitting together of the solutions to a number of problems. Although each of the individual components solves a specific problem, their combination provides the solution to a general problem.. A more ecological version of this paradigm may help to avoid that worry.Analogical reasoning has been studied in animals using methods similar to those used in developmental research. Much of the research has involved ...Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal. Behavior Process, 11, 35-51. Fagot ... These studies have investigated analogical reasoning by requiring animals to ...Recent years have witnessed a political turn in animal ethics, with the appearance of several theories that discuss how political institutions and processes can be transformed to guarantee justice for animals (Cochrane, Garner, & O’Sullivan 2018). This work is somewhat less capacity-oriented than traditional animal ethics, since it does not focus on the moral obligations of individual humans towards animals, and tends to highlight instead the sorts of obligations that are generated at the state level by the relationships that humans have historically held with animals (Donaldson & Kymlicka 2011).

 

 

 

Reference [31]

Title: A new study suggests that crows can use analogical reasoning ...

Url: https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/2s45l4/a_new_study_suggests_that_crows_can_use/

Highlights: Cognition is often understood to be what permits flexible goal-oriented behavior through information processing. Comparative cognition research examines which animal behaviors are cognitive, and what sort of cognitive mechanisms or processes permit that behaviorFurthermore, animal cognition research tends to eschew questions of which animals are smarter than others, focusing instead on more specific questions like the ones above. Scientists often say that they are more interested in how well an animal evolved to thrive in their environment, rather than in how smart they are. This way of thinking about intelligence makes comparing intelligence between species moot (though it is a topic that is largely unexplored by philosophers of animal minds). Contemporary research in animal cognition has as its roots Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, and Darwin’s thesis of the continuity of the mental across species: the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. (Darwin 1874: 126, with a minor variation 1871: 105)

 

 

Reference [32]

Title: Animal Cognition - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Url: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognition-animal/

Highlights: Animal cognition focuses on capacities and psychological states that are causally effective in behavior, and thus the study of animal cognition ...To interpret animal behavior one must learn also to see one’s own mentality at levels of development much lower than one’s top-level of reflective self-consciousness. It is not easy, and savors somewhat of paradox. (Morgan 1932: 250)

 

 

Reference [33]

Title: Analogical Reasoning in Animals - SpringerLink

Url: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_947

Highlights: Analogical reasoning is problem solving based on relational or functional similarities, such that knowledge from a familiar domain is applied to a novel ...

 

 

Reference [34]

Title: Mindreading Animals: The Debate over What Animals Know about ...

Url: https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/mindreading-animals-the-debate-over-what-animals-know-about-other-minds/

Highlights: Evolutionary theorists are fond of noting that there are no “general solutions” because the problems to which evolution provides solutions are always specific. This view accords well with animal intelligence. The animal’s adaptation is a perfect example of a solution to a specific problem. However, the view does not accord well with human intelligence, for domain-general competence is not a solution to a specific problem. How do we resolve the seeming paradox between standard evolutionary theory and the domain-general character of human intelligence? Human faculties seem to consist, not of a solution to one problem, but of the knitting together of the solutions to a number of problems. Although each of the individual components solves a specific problem, their combination provides the solution to a general problem.

 

 

 

 
 
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